Culture-Bound Syndromes

Mental health functioning is important regarding a person’s well-being, being able to interact with others in a healthy manner, and contributes many things to individual’s through communities and society. Culture-bound syndromes are conditions that are specific to particular cultures. The cultures that experience, express, and deal with culture-bound syndromes in different ways is extremely common. LaVeist and Thomas (2005) state that â€Å"culture-bound syndromes are clusters of symptoms more common in some cultures than others† (p. 01). There are symptoms that are found in all nations, cultures, and similarly recognizable worldwide but yet are different at the same time. Culture-Bound Syndromes Culture-bound syndromes, also known as culture-specific syndromes, have been defined as â€Å"clusters of symptoms more common in some cultures than in other cultural groups† (LaVeist & Thomas, 2005, p. 101). Although many mental disorders are well known in sp ecific cultures, these disorders are at least somewhat conditioned by the culture in which they are found.More importantly, the topic of culture-bound syndromes has â€Å"been a controversial topic since they have reflected the different opinions of anthropologists and psychiatrists† (WHO, 1992). Consequently, researchers have had some difficulty emphasizing culture specific dimensions of certain syndromes. Some studies have suggested that the most beneficial aspect of defining culture-bound syndromes is that they represent an acceptable way to define specific cultural responses to certain situations.According to Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999), â€Å"researchers have referred to culture bound research on culture-bound syndromes serves strategically to tighten the integration between cultural and clinical knowledge, while providing insights into issues of diagnostic universality and culturally specificity† (p. 1326). The role of biology in the development of culture-bound syndromes, therefore, has proved to be of debate. Interest in culture-bound syndromes has increased over the last few decades.Similarly the treatment in a diagnostic classification treatment of these disorders has over the last several years gained attention (Guarnaccia & Rogler, 1999). Clinicians are presented with plenty of challenges when dealing with culture-bound syndromes such as how to diagnose them. Several questions clinicians present include the stability of culture-bound syndromes, the common nature of these disorders across cultures, and the similarity of symptoms between syndromes (APA, 1994).Similarly, the question of whether culture-bound syndromes should be included in the diagnostic criteria of current psychological illnesses or as individual entities themselves is also debatable (APA, 1994). Another issue concerns the relationship between culture bound syndromes and standard diagnostic systems such as the DSM. Of specific concern is that they do not easily con form to the categories within the DSM due to significant differences across cultures.These differences are due to differing views of self and reality as well as the different ways cultures express certain disorders (APA, 1994). Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999) referring to the DSM classification system in that it addresses certain concerns about differing cultural boundaries, and in dealing with the classification methods certainly deal with the reliability and validity of the non-universality of cultural experiences in relation to mental illnesses.The fact that each culture-bound syndrome is individually associated with particular sets of illness responses, it is difficult to define precisely the definition of the culture-bound syndromes as a unit. Culture-bound syndromes as therefore comprised as several different illnesses and afflictions. LaVeist and Thomas (2005) thoroughly expresses the dynamic nature of culture-bound syndromes when they state: The symptoms of mental disorders are found in all nations and in all cultures; there are recognizable symptoms that are common worldwide.Mental health researchers have not yet been able to determine whether culture bound syndromes are indicative of one or more possibilities that include distinct disorders that exist only in specific cultures, and reflect different ways in which individuals from different cultures express mental illness, as well as reflecting different ways in which the social and cultural environment interact with genes to produce disorders, or any combination of these. (pp. 01) With the following information in mind, it should be noted that not all disorders are considered pathological; some behaviors are seen as ways of expressing and communicating distress to members of a certain culture and are seen as culturally accepted responses (APA, 1994). In fact, cultures experience, express, and cope with feelings of distress in various ways that may counter what Western societies see as common. Furthermor e, at times these cultural differences are referred to as idioms of distress.Understanding the expression of these idioms (for example somatization, which is a physical representation of distress that is typically accompanied by symptoms such as abdominal or chest pain, heart palpitations, dizziness or vertigo, and blurred vision) allows clinicians to be more aware of the diagnoses they give (LaVeist & Thomas, 2005). Culture-bound syndromes can also appear to be similar within several cultures. Furthermore, a culture specific syndrome can be categorized by various things.The APA (1994) characterizes culture specific syndromes as the following: categorization as a disease in the culture, familiarity within a widespread culture, people with lack of familiarity of specific conditions from other cultures, and the use of folk medicines that particular cultures use as a conditioned sense of usage within a specific culture. More specifically, culture-bound syndromes are not the same as geographically localized diseases with specific biological causes, such as kuru or sleeping sickness, or genetic conditions limited to certain populations, like sickle cell anemia (APA, 1994).Discussions of culture-bound syndromes have often concerned the amount of different categories of syndromes present in the world today. Many culture-bound syndromes are actually specific cultural representations of illnesses found elsewhere in the world. Some of these responses are not necessarily psychological illnesses but rather are explanatory mechanisms like witchcraft (Simons & Hughes, 1985). Beliefs in witchcraft could seem to be a little farfetched as a type of culture-bound illness; however, it is supposed that witchcraft can lead to behaviors that can be seen as disordered.This concept is of particular concern to medical and psychiatric anthropologists because culture-bound syndromes provide examples of how cultural specific symptoms can evolve into psychological illnesses. Just because these responses may not begin as disorders, however, does not devalue the fact that they are illnesses and should be taken seriously (Simons & Hughes, 1985). The American Psychiatric Association (1994), states that the Western scientific perspective characterizes culture specific syndromes as imaginary and has no way of clearly being able to show why someone cannot understand that perspective.According to the APA (1994), physicians will share many things about a disorder with the patients and help them try to understand how they see their particular disorder; they also use folk medicine treatment if the patient asks for that if it is a culture-bound syndrome. Another thing is that a physician may falsify a patients perspective to offer folk medicine treatments that are available or maybe for a new and improved treatment strategy. Lastly, the clinician should educate the patient on being able to recognize their condition as a culture-bound syndrome so that the clinician m ay treat them as they see fit.Guarnaccia and Rogler (1994) said that specific conditions are very challenging within medical care and illustrate rarely discussed aspects of fundamental aspects of physician to patient relationships, a diagnosis that is the best fit for the way of looking at the body and its diseases are easily negotiated if both parties can be found. Restrictions of the diagnostic classification systems of culture-bound syndromes have complications with certain additions within the iagnostic classification systems and have raised many questions. It is not quite clear on whether culture-bound syndromes are actually different from conventional syndromes or if they are just categorically different. Some people like to argue that some culture-bound syndromes are not just limited to specific cultures but are widely experienced throughout the world. Many of the syndromes that have been labeled as culture- bound are compromised by many mixtures of indicators that have been witnessed collectively.Culture-bound syndromes are lacking in diagnostic regularity and legitimacy making it extremely difficult to reach widespread straightforward criteria to describe these illnesses because of problems in language. â€Å"In the development of the DSM, its designers tried to create a diagnostic system that was well-suited with a broader and more worldwide medical organization system that is, the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death (ICD) developed by the World Health Organization† (WHO, 1992).Therefore, the DSM implements a medical model of diagnosis for which many mental disorders, regardless of whether their background is biological or psychological, is viewed as mental illnesses and requires treatment. Furthermore, this model is implicit and assuming that mental disorders are under the compromise of behavioral or psychological symptoms that can form definable patterns or distinct forms of a particular syndrome (Guarnacc ia & Rogler, 1994).The authors of the DSM definitely made a careful choice to accept a clear-cut categorization of mental illnesses. It is important to notice, however, that the DSM does not make the assumption that all mental disorders are discreet entities with absolutely no boundaries. Finally, before methodology is discussed, examples of what culture-bound syndromes actually are is important to include. The case of Koro â€Å"provides an example of shifting diagnostic classifications because of changing decisions about which symptoms are predominant.For example, Koro was first categorized as a somatoform disorder on the basis of the perception of the afflicted person’s intense preoccupation with a somatic concern, the retraction of the penis† (Bernstein & Gaw, 1990). â€Å"More recently, Koro was categorized as an anxiety disorder and noted that others have associated Koro with panic disorders† (Levine & Gaw, 1995, p. 1323). Second, the debate of the relationship between culture-bound syndromes and psychiatric disorders according to symptoms is evident in the case of Latah Levine & Gaw, 1995). More specifically, â€Å"a debate about Latah focuses on which theoretical perspective should prevail; Simons and Hughes argued that the predominant feature of Latah is the neurophysiological startle reflex, culturally elaborated into Latah in Malaysia† (Simons & Hughes, 1985, p. 1323). Therefore, each disorder represents responses specific to certain cultures while also explaining the different ways cultures respond to events. MethodUnderstanding culture-bound syndromes requires looking at multiple sources that give a broad range of information regarding the topic. For this paper I felt that it was necessary to use the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders because it gives plenty of information regarding culture-bound syndromes. The Diagnostic and Statistical Ma nual of Mental Disorders is extremely useful in the fact that it allows a health educator to become more acquainted with culture-bound syndromes that are unique and unusual to our specific field of study.Guarnaccia and Rogler and their research on culture-bound syndromes is informational in that they give a comprehensive look at culture-bound syndromes through the classification system and allow one to focus more on specific syndromes, such as Koro and Latah. LaVeist and Thomas from Chapter 5 in Minority Populations and Health are really informational along the lines of mental health, mental illness, and mental health problems.They give a more thorough explanation of basic background information on the previously stated information and topics and yet still remain in-depth when looking at specific aspects of mental health. They describe mental health, mental health problems, and mental illness in more detail and allow for the interpretation of others reading their work to help fuel o ne’s own judgments on those topics. I also used various sources to address other topics relevant to culture-bound syndromes. For example, Bernstein and Gaw specifically addressed Koro, which I used as an example of a culture-bound syndrome.Another example, Simon and Hughes addressed Latah, I felt it was necessary to use examples of both Koro and Latah to help show what culture-bound syndromes were exactly and what they meant to cultures that were not American and how the cultures that were affected by these syndromes. The method I used for identifying and locating sources mainly dealt with trying to find a broad aspect of culture-bound syndromes and basic information on this particular subject. The rationale for choosing the specific sources was along the lines of being able to find enough useable information that could allow me to get my points across.When searching the electronic databases and the library at Central Arkansas University I was mainly looking for a broad range of topics that could fulfill the various information needs I had for this paper. I wanted to look at the topic on multiple levels, including cross-cultural, the way culture-bound syndromes affect others, and the ways in which these disorders are specifically associated with mental illness. Analysis & Discussion The grouping of culture-bound syndromes into qualified diagnostic categories usually is based on a perception of their principal indicators.But the bigger issue itself of classifying a majority of symptoms is definitely challenging, as exemplified in the cases of Koro and Latah. Problems most definitely arose when conclusions were built on general, typical descriptions of the syndrome that are then linked with the textbook criteria of psychiatric diagnoses. The present method of studying the same set of readings and engaging in the classification process with them does not, from my viewpoint, promote the consideration of culture-bound syndromes.The approach of trying to find the right classificatory organization by basing it on the similarity between certain symptoms that include maybe one or two of the same grouping within the syndrome as well as the DSM groupings as the main organizing arrangement of significance to the culture-bound syndromes is not expected to produce new answers to the questions about the classification system. There are many syndromes that have different names that are seen from a variety of cultures that are basically the same set of behaviors, but culturally are explained in slightly different ways.Occasionally, on certain remote instances the arrangement of the behavior that is recognized as a culture-bound syndrome occurs in an area that is far from individuals where the termed and elaborated syndrome is an endemic. Conclusion & Recommendations Some major challenges that can help the classification system out is that the same distress responses may be stated differently as a result of cultural cues, language variances , and changes in experience.In addition, the American Psychiatric Association (1994) notes that some examples of cultural structuring and or human behavior knowledge regarding illnesses are stated in Western classification systems more commonly known as the DSM. Thus, the challenge to categorize culture bound syndromes, whether as diverse syndromes or as part of an already categorized illness, is an activity that is inseparably tied to a certain culture. Also it has been suggested the ways that cultures and their social methods can limit the expansion of an internationally valid system of identification.Guarnaccia and Rogler (1999) suggests that classification of culture-bound syndromes are better than recording symptoms due to the fact that examining the context and symbolic structure of cultural reactions yield a better turnout. The main themes of most discussions over culture-bound syndromes is that such illnesses personalize symptom patterns that are somewhat linked in some sign ificant way to the specific cultural setting in which they have occurred within.Because most of the syndromes are separate from the theoretical outlook of the Western medicine systems, they are quite often disregarded in serious analyses and therefore are carelessly overlooked for helpful mediations. These disorders appear to reside in a figurative twilight zone of psychiatric diagnosis and are viewed as highly mysterious. To nearly everyone, the behavior and outlooks common to one’s own culture seem natural and/or rational in most parts, while those derived from other cultures appear abnormal, culture-specific, or arising from irregular conditions.Most clinicians are more than likely to think through the justification of culture when presenting a patient’s problem, especially when he or she is from a cultural setting other than the clinician’s own. However, cultural factors are a considerable part of every disorder and expressive in the outlook of specific comp onents. Nonetheless, all psychiatric illnesses are culture bound to a certain degree. The divisions of psychiatric illnesses of culture-bound syndromes are those found only in inadequate cultural areas.Though culture does shape all illness behavior, it is always hypothetically informative to ask why any given syndrome appears to be present or not in a given culture. In recent years, the mindfulness of cultural diversity and of the role of culture in all illnesses has greatly been improved. Because of the interpretations into the relationships between individual psychopathology and culturally firm practices and beliefs that the study of culture-bound syndromes offers, an interest in these syndromes has grown greatly over the past several years.Health educators in dealing with culture-bound syndromes would be able to help Center for Disease Control officials in many aspects. Since culture-bound syndromes are very common among many cultures around the world, health educators who deal w ith particular syndromes could help assess and implement many programs that can help with assessing many syndromes that afflict many cultures throughout the world. In a classroom setting, health educators can teach students how to spot syndromes and treat them to an extent in which helps their particular culture, community or society.Health education programs that are implemented within colleges and universities can stress that culture-bound syndromes are very serious and need to be treated like any other mental health disease that we as educators deal with and try to diagnose every day. I believe that policies and procedures that are already implemented within our culture are doing a good job in trying to handle culture-bound syndromes. Educationally, I believe that there are definitely some great programs that try to help with identifying and dealing with culture-bound syndromes.References American Psychiatric Association (APA). 1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental D isorders, Fourth Edition: DSM-IV. Washington, DC. Bernstein, R. L. , & Gaw, A. C. (1990). Koro: proposed classification for DSM-IV. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1670-1674. Guarnaccia, P. J. , & Rogler, L. H. (1999). Research on culture-bound syndromes: New directions. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(9), 1322-1327. Hall, T. M. (2008). Culture-bound syndromes in China. Retrieved from http://homepage. mac. com/mccajor/cbs. html LaVeist, T. A. , & Thomas, D. (2005). Mental health. In T. A. LaVeist (Ed. Minority populations and health: An introduction to health disparities in the United States (pp. 83-107). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Levine, R. E. , & Gaw, A. C. (1995). Culture-bound syndromes. Psychiatry Clinic North America, 18, 523-536. World Health Organization (WHO). (1992). International Classification of Diseases, 10th Edition (ICD-10): Classification of mental and behavioral disorders. Geneva, Switzerland. Simons, R. C. , & Hughes, C. C. (1985 ). The culture-bound syndromes: Folk illnesses of psychiatric and anthropological interest. Dordrecht, Netherlands.

Dramatic impact Essay

In 1915, Arthur T. Miller was born in the city of New York, where his family business was ruined after the stock market crash of ’29. This had a continuous affect on his life and work. The half-Austrian, half-American playwright wrote Death of a Salesman in 1949, at the age of 34. Along with his other acclaimed plays (including All My Sons and The Crucible): Death of a Salesman includes his common themes of corruption, society’s deterioration, the â€Å"Great American Dream† and lost values. Set in the Mid-20th century after the Second World War: Death of a Salesman is a tale of values lost to a world where they now carry little weight and of a man, in himself, lost to those values and in so doing isolating himself to the ever-changing world. Renowned as one of the best plays to ever come out of America. A particularly dramatic and significant scene in this attack against capitalism is the â€Å"restaurant scene†, in which a father-son bond is torn in tragedy, brotherly love is dissipated and life grinds to a halt for an old, tired man. The scene in general is a very significant part of the play as it acts as the final â€Å"trigger† for Willy Loman to take his own life. We know this as, in the scene that directly follows this, Willy is quoted saying: (To Stanley) â€Å"Here’s some more, I don’t need it anymore†¦ † This shows us that he has (after this event) well and truly given up on this life, by stating that he will no longer be needed to use his money for he will die and in doing so provide his family with some insurance support, making this scene very significant indeed. The final trigger that I mentioned could be a number of events. Firstly, some critics believe, the fact that Biff has realised the truth: â€Å"I was just a shipping clerk†, which Willy has shut out for countless years deep inside, is the fatal factor of Willy’s suicide: that he himself, through Biff, finally sees what his life has lived up to – nothing. We can see evidence of this in the garden scene where he tries to leave something, however small, behind as his â€Å"legacy†: â€Å"I’ve got to get some seeds, right away. Nothing’s planted. I don’t have a thing in the ground. † He has an urgent need to leave something behind and the seeds are a metaphorical representation of this. Some critics feel that this scene is significant as it builds up to the next scene where Willy has a â€Å"flashback† of Biff’s discovery of The Woman, revealing to the audience for the first time the event that sparks the turmoil that Biff suffers for the next fifteen years of his life: The knowledge of his father’s infidelity shatters this ideal that he has held for so long. This would patch up the â€Å"missing link† and explain to the audience how Biff went from the loving son we saw in the earlier â€Å"flashbacks† to the almost hateful adult we see in the present. Others however believe that it is what has happened before this scene that makes it so significant. Due to the tension build up up-until then was mounting by Willy’s encounters with Howard, Bernard and Charley beforehand constituting harsh blows to the fantasy through which Willy views his life; his constructed â€Å"reality† was falling apart. The audience, after seeing Biff’s own disappointment through his conversation with Happy, are curious to see how Willy will react to yet another letdown. And after seeing how badly he does take it, we know this is the final straw/chapter in his life. Biff has also experienced a moment of truth, but he regards his epiphany as a freeing experience from a lifetime of distorting lies. He wishes to leave behind the â€Å"facade of the Loman family tradition† so that he and his father can begin to have an honest relationship. Willy, on the other hand, wants his sons to help him in rebuilding the elaborate fantasies that have been crushed so many times before. Willy drives Biff to produce a falsely positive report of his interview with Bill Oliver; Happy is all too willing to comply. When Biff fails to produce the expected report, Happy, comes in with lies about the interview. Another point of significance is the event of Biff’s Epiphany. Here he realises the truth for the first time â€Å"I was never a salesman for Bill Oliver† and in doing so he shows Willy the truth as well. He actually HAS the epiphany at Oliver’s office but here is the first time we, as the audience, heard or know of it. Many say that Biff is the main reason why Willy takes his life as Miller states himself: â€Å"†¦ Had Willy been unaware of his separation from values that endure he would have died contently while polishing his car†¦ But he was agonized by his awareness of being in a false position, so constantly haunted by the hollowness of everything he put his faith in†¦ † And so if Biff had not confirmed what Willy had always known all along then maybe Willy might either still be alive or dies happily. However this point is very controversial. Biff is determined to break through the lies surrounding the Loman family in order to come to terms with his own life and his own identity, which his father made for him years a go. Intent on revealing the simple truth behind Willy’s fantasy: Biff’s identity crisis can only be resolved by destroying his and his father’s disillusionment, which has a devastating effect on Willy – leading to his suicide. However, taking into account of all the above, I personally believe this act is significant to the play as it provides great sympathy for all of the main characters. Biff, by his stage directions, is made to look sympathetic: â€Å"(takes a breath, then reaches out and grasps Willy’s hand)†¦. (Smiling bravely)†¦ (Gets down on one knee before Willy) and so on. Even by the stage directions, the audience is shown the character of Biff as a sincere and caring person with an undying love for his father. Willy is shown sympathy through the mere bombardment of misfortunes that he faces: â€Å"I was fired, and I’m looking for a little good news to tell your mother†¦ â€Å". Willy will be onstage in utter confusion and desperation in this scene, (at a loss), and empathy would be felt by the audience due to the music and lighting which places the audience into Willy’s frame of mind. Happy is given sympathy by the fact that the audience can see that Biff has snapped out of â€Å"The Great American Pipedream† and Happy has not, and in doing so ensures his future life will be just like Willy’s – and that is definitely an aspect for sympathy. Linda also is shown sympathy in this extract as Willy mentions her: â€Å"†¦ because the woman has waited and the woman has suffered†¦ â€Å". Another factor of the act’s significance is that it is riddled with dramatic impact, through lighting, music and action. Music provides a good medium for emotions and also works were as a foreshadow of events-to-come. Music such as the â€Å"Raucous music† used in the setting of the restaurant can show what the event will unfold to be. Also the flute music indicates a more relaxing and nostalgic appeal as the flute was Willy’s father’s trade. Lighting is a huge dramatic effect as it is the only way, unless the theatre is packed with playwrights, that the audience can understand what is happening – especially during â€Å"flashbacks†. (Light on area snaps out). The use of lighting also allows the audience to empathise with Willy by â€Å"seeing† what he does: (light fades low on the restaurant). Also it can be used to set a scene as in the restaurant: â€Å"a red glow rises behind screen at right†, here Miller employs the colour scheme to complement the music, which in turn foretell the upcoming event. There are many â€Å"dramatic† moments in this scene. One of which is the event of the trumpet note: Biff: â€Å"Listen, will you let me out of it, will you just let me out of it! † Happy: â€Å"What the hell! † Willy: â€Å"Tell me what happened! † Biff: (to Happy) â€Å"I can’t talk to him! † (A single trumpet note jars in the air) Before this, tension was building up slowly (speeches becoming shorter and shorter), with Biff’s frustration to tell his father of his revelation and Willy’s determination to hear what he wants to. It builds at an exponential rate until the trumpet note. This is used here to empathise to the audience of the final breakdown between father and son. It is also a symbol of the heightened tension and emotions running. The audience is shocked and taken back by this, not suddenly, but still effectively. Sympathy is also felt at this point as these two once worshipped each other and now they are at this time of hatred. We can also, as the audience, know that Biff want to â€Å"let him out of it (Willy’s dreams)†. Another dramatic moment was when Willy tells his boys: â€Å"I was fired today†. This is not a surprise to the audience, as we knew it would come; however when it came comes as a shock. It is abrupt and early on into the scene. Beforehand he was talking â€Å"in tongue† and the audience sees that he is confused. However this speech is a rare piece of metaphorical language used in the play as Miller tries to use as much â€Å"everyday† language as possible to keep a more naturalistic appeal and less focus on how characters are saying things but on what they are actually conveying through speech. He speaks of â€Å"the woods are burning†, which shows the desperation Willy is in and the fact that: he is seeing everything crowding around him, his dreams are burning, his dream of a country retirement, his beloved nature (woods) is being consumed by materialism (fire) – and so is he. Also this metaphor re-enforces itself with: â€Å"burning†¦ big blaze†¦ fired†. This adds troubled depth to his life. The â€Å"flashbacks† that Willy has are very dramatic. Re-enforced using lighting and music as well they seem to â€Å"patch up† key points about the past that are missing. The whole play is about â€Å"patching up† the middle of a story that we already know the ending of â€Å"Death of a Salesman†. I use â€Å"flashback† in a loose sense, as they are not actually flashbacks. They, on stage, would be just as loud as reality, have the same lighting, are not distorted and so on. Also the fact that they are so alike to reality shows us that in Willy’s desperation to justify his own life, he has destroyed the boundaries from past to present. All of the â€Å"flashbacks† are juxtaposed with scenes of failure. The final dramatic scene in this extract is Happy’s line of: â€Å"No, that’s not my father†. This is incredibly â€Å"low† and spiteful; the audience would not expect this even of Happy, who we know is already quite two faced in the way he acts towards Willy. Extremely tragic. This is right before Biff’s â€Å"elegy† of Willy in which he refers to him as a Prince. However Happy cant even acknowledge him as a father. In Happy’s defence Willy ahs not really been the ideal father, but he still had Hap’s best interests at heart. However the audience can see that the character of Biff as a â€Å"changed man†: no longer bound into the capitalistic system that engulfed Willy, no longer deluding himself or others, no longer a â€Å"LOW-MAN†. In this extract, references are made to many different other stories. In Biff’s speech Miller refers to â€Å"A Troubled Prince† as in Macbeth. In the scene afterwards where Biff is knocking on Willy’s door, also have similarities to Macbeth. Willy’s flashback to avoid the truth is reminiscent of Oedipus poking out his eyes. And finally Happy’s dismissal of Willy is like that of Peter and Jesus. This makes the scene significant as it contains all of these epic references. Death of a Salesman is a tragic tale of a man caught in a system he never got to know. During this restaurant scene, Willy decides he is worth more dead than alive because all he had left was his sons and after their failures and the breakdown of their relationship he is nothing. This scene in the restaurant is the most important of the entire play for this reason. It is also very dramatic as it reveals the death of a man, by the failures of him as a father, a salesman and of a man.

ANALIZATION OF CHARACTERS-- ALL QUIET ON THE WESTE

ANALIZATION OF CHARACTERS ALL QUIET ON THE WESTE Essay RN FRONT- PAUL BAUMER Paul Baumer is the 19-year-old narrator of the story. At the front, Pauls special friends in Second Company include his classmates Behm, Kemmerich, Muller, Leer, and Kropp. The six of them were among 20 who enlisted together, prodded on by Schoolmaster Kantorek. Although he doesnt say so, Paul is obviously a natural leader: Franz Kemmerichs mother implored him to look after her son when they left home. Paul is also courageous. He may momentarily panic, but he doesnt break under the most terrible battle conditions. He learns the sound of each type of shell; he dives for cover or grabs his gas mask at the right instant. In one battle, he gently comforts an embarrassed rookie who has soiled his underpants, and later soberly contemplates shooting the same man to spare him an agonizing death after his hip has been shattered. Cool as he is in battle, though, Paul has a hard time making sense of it all. He keeps recalling Behm, the first of his class to die, and when a second- Kemmerich- dies, he rages inwardly at the senseless slaughter of scrawny schoolboys. The callous attitude of commanders and orderlies toward an individual death saddens and disillusions him. His elders were wrong- there is nothing glorious about war- but he has no new values to replace the patriotic myths they taught him. At first his companions seem shallow to him- immediately forgetting the dead and turning their total attention to stockpiling the cigarets and food originally meant for the deceased soldier- and he is at pains to tell us why this callousness is necessary. Gradually, though, he comes to accept their approach: that poetry and philosophy and civilian paper-pushing jobs alike, all are utterly pointless in the midst of so much carnage. All you have is the moment at hand, and getting from it all the physical comfort you can is a worthwhile goal. There is another important element, too, to being with your comrades, as going on leave proves to Paul: no civilian u nderstands you the way these men do, and nothing from your former life sustains you the way their friendship does. These values come together for Paul the evening he joins an older friend, Katczinsky, on a goose-hunting raid. They spend the night roasting the goose before eating it, and each time that Paul awakens for his turn at the basting, he feels Katczinskys presence like a cloak of comfort. At other times, panicked and alone in the dark of the trenches, all it takes to steady his nerves is the sound of his friends voices. If he awakens from a nightmare, the mere sound of their breathing strengthens him: he is not alone. Paul gradually comes to realize that the enemy is no different from himself or from one of his friends. The Frenchman he kills in the trenches, Duval, looks like the kind of man whose friendship he would have enjoyed. The Russian prisoners he guards have the same feelings and desires and needs as he. He comes to see war as the ultimate horror. Its bad enough th at it pits man against man. But even animals and trees and flowers and butterflies are innocently caught up in the carnage inflicted by Man, the great Destroyer. As his friends are killed one by one, Paul can only cling to his newfound beliefs in the brotherhood of all men and the value of the spark of life within each individual. At the end, alone, he has only the blind hope that his own mysterious inner spark will somehow survive and guide him after the war. Otherwise, he sees no meaningful future. Themes 1. THE HORROR OF WAR Remarque includes discussions among Pauls group, and Pauls own thoughts while he observes Russian prisoners of war (Chapters 3, 8, 9) to show that no ordinary people benefit from a war. No matter what side a man is on, he is killing other men just like himself, people with whom he might even be friends at another time. But Remarque doesnt just tell us war is horrible. He also shows us that war is terrible beyond anything we could imagine. All our senses are assaulted: we see newly dead soldiers and long-dead corpses tossed up together in a cemetery (Chapter 4); we hear the unearthly screaming of the wounded horses (Chapter 4); we see and smell three layers of bodies, swelling up and belching gases, dumped into a huge shell hole (Chapter 6); and we can almost touch the naked bodies hanging in trees and the limbs lying around the battlefield (Chapter 9). The crying of the horses is especially terrible. Horses have nothing to do with making war. Their bodies gleam beautifully as they parade along- until the shells strike them. To Paul, their dying cries represent all of nature accusing Man, the great destroyer. In later chapters Paul no longer mentions nature as an accuser but seems to suggest that nature is simply there- rolling steadily on through the seasons, paying no attention to the desperate cruelties of men to each other. This, too, shows the horror of war, that it is completely unnatural and has no place in the larger scheme of t hings. 2. A REJECTION OF TRADITIONAL VALUES In his introductory note Remarque said that his novel was not an accusation. But we have seen that it is, in many places, exactly that. This accusation- or rejection of traditional militaristic values of Western civilization- is impressed on the reader through the young soldiers, represented by Paul and his friends, who see military attitudes as stupid and who accuse their elders of betraying them. In an early chapter Paul admits that endless drilling and sheer harassment did help toughen his group and turn them into soldiers. But he points out, often, how stupid it is to stick to regulations at the front- how insane this basic military attitude becomes in life-and-death situations. One such scene occurs in Chapter 1 when Ginger, the cook, doesnt want to let 80 men eat the food prepared for 150, no matter how hungry they are. Another occurs in Chapter 7 when Paul is walking around in his hometown and a major forces him to march double ti me and salute properly- a ridiculous display, considering what he has just been through at the front. The emptiness of all this spit and polish shows up again in Chapter 9 when the men have to return the new clothes they were issued for the Kaisers inspection: rags are whats real at the front. The betrayal of the young by their elders becomes an issue on several occasions. In the first two chapters of the book we learn how misguided Paul was by the teachings of parents and schoolmasters. We also see how older people cling to the Prussian mythof the glory of military might when Paul goes home on leave in Chapter 7. The Kaisers visit in Chapter 9 adds some hints of Remarques specific disillusionment with the leaders of his own country. From a broad study of literature and world history, we can see that these older people were not individually to blame for their views. They were simply handing on what was handed on to them. Still, we can also understand why Paul and his friends are so bitterly disappointed and so angry to discover that their elders were wrong. Most readers feel alittle sad that young men should consider the act of ridiculing adults their greatest goal in life, but we can also understand why they take revenge on Himmelstoss and Kantorek (Chapters 3 and 7). We even get a certain kick out of what they do, understanding their need to take out their disappointment on someone they know. These situations are, in miniature, an acting out of the bitter anger and disillusionment Paul feels when he says in Chapter 10, It must all be lies and of no account when the culture of a thousand years could not prevent this stream of blood being poured out. 3. FRIENDSHIP: THE ONLY ENDURING VALUE The theme of comradeship occurs often and gives the novel both lighthearted and sad moments. In Chapter 5 its easy to overlook how the farmer felt about having his property stolen and to chuckle aloud when Paul is struggling to capture the goose! We appreciate the circle of warmth that encloses him and Kat that night as they slowly cook and eat the goose, and then extend their warm circle by sharing the leftovers with Kropp and Tjaden. In Chapter 10 we enjoy their sharing of the pancakes and roast pig and fine club chairs at the supply dump, and we understand why Paul fakes a high temperature to go to the same hospital as Albert Kropp. Friendship emerges as an even more important theme at the front. In Chapters 10 and 11 we see men helping wounded comrades at great personal risk- or even, like Lieutenant Bertinck, dying for their friends. The handing on of Kemmerichs fine yellow leather boots also acts as a symbol of friendship- a symbol we can almost touch, and one that keeps us aware of how deeply a soldier feels the loss of each of his special friends. We can understand how hearing the voices of friends when one is lost (Chapter 9) or even just hearing their breathing during the night (Chapter 11) can keep a soldier going. We grieve with Paul and a lmost put down the book when Kat dies. 4. A GENERATION DESTROYED BY WORLD WAR I Taking all of the themes together and adding Paul and his friends hopeless discussions of what is left for them to do after the war (Chapter 5), we can conclude that Remarque succeeds in his main theme: showing that Pauls generation was destroyed by the Great War, as World War I was then called. CharacterIn the case of All Quiet, Paul is young and immature. Until he enlisted, he had never experienced real pain or tragedy in his life. Older people generally know from experience that human beings can survive incredible pain and still find meaning in life. Paul hasnt had any time to gain that kind of experience to sustain him. Therefore its asking quite a bit to have us accept, from him, whole theories about war and life and the nature of human beings. Still, whatever Paul might lack in age or experience is balanced for us by the honesty and sensitivity we see in him. Over all, then, in All Quiet on the Wes tern Front, the advantages of first person narration outweigh the disadvantages. There is a perfect fit of first person point of view with what Remarque wanted to say about World War I- that it destroyed a whole generation of the young. How better to show us that than to let us experience the war through the eyes of a young soldier? Remarque is proposing the view that human existence can no longer be regarded as having any ultimate meaning. Baumer and his comrades cannot make sense of the world at large for the simple reason that it is no longer possible to do so, not just for this group of ordinary soldiers, but for a substantial proportion of his entire generation. Remarque refuses to lull his reader into a false sense of security, into thinking that God is in his heaven and all is right with the world. The Destructiveness of WarThis is a major theme of this novel. Throughout this book, the men are exposed to limbs being blown off, blood flow everywhere, and innocent men dying in pain and agony. When they take shelter, bombs explode around them and they observe men squirm in order to save themselves. The destructive power of war is so great that even the fundamental difference between life and death become blurred. READ: Breaking Down The Metamorphosis Essay ComradesThe theme of comraderie, or friendship, occurs constantly in the novel. The friendship held within Pauls company keeps them from being driven insane by the horrors that surround them. These young men were brought to fight on the battlefield almost directly from the schoolyard. AlienationAt first Paul and his friends still behave as if their lives will someday return to normal. In the middle of the book, Paul goes home on leave, only to discover that his real home is now with his friends on the front. By that time, Kat dies, and Paul geels that his own life no longer has meaning. Although Paul comes to think of his comrades as brothers, he also learns that all men are brothers under their skin. The irony of war is that brothers are forced to kill each other. Paul expresses this theme when he showed compassion for the captured Russian soldiers and the French soldier he kills in the trench.hough Paul comes to think of his comrades as brothers, he also learns that all men are brothers under their skin. The irony of war is that brothers are forced to kill each other. Pauls expresses this theme when he showed compassion for the captured Russian soldiers and the French soldier he kills in the trench.

Term Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Term Project - Research Paper Example Authentic leadership is â€Å"a pattern of transparent and ethical leader behavior that encourages openness in sharing information needed to make decisions while accepting followers’ inputs† (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009, p. 423). On the other hand, transformational leadership consists of â€Å"leader behaviors that transform and inspire followers to perform beyond expectations while transcending self-interest for the good of the organization† (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009, p. 423). Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the most prevalent theories on motivation (Fisher, 2009). This theory suggests that people are motivated by five level of needs, which are physiological, security, social, ego, and self-actualization (Ibid.). As such, workers are motivated by the needs that math the level that they are currently at. Consequently, leaders must be able to identify the level that workers of their department are working at in order to offer specific oppor tunities fitting the identified level (Ibid). The different leadership styles are thus seen to be an important consideration in motivating employees and consequently improving organizational performance. If a relationship between these variables is found, organizations may set up the proper methods to encourage higher level management to enforce a particular leadership strategy and thereby improve the productivity of their respective organizations. This study aims to find if this relationship indeed exists, that is, if leadership styles contribute significantly to employee motivation, and translate this motivation to organizational productivity. This research study aims to answer the following research questions: R1: Is there a relationship between leadership style and motivation? R2: If such a relationship exists, which relationship style motivates employees the most? R3: Is there a relationship between leadership style and organizational productivity? R4: If such a relationship ex ists, which relationship style leads to the highest organizational productivity? With these research questions in mind, the following research hypotheses will be tested for significance: Ho1: There is no relationship between leadership style and motivation. Ha1: There is a significant relationship between leadership style and motivation Ho2: There is no relationship between leadership style and organizational productivity. Ha2: There is a significant relationship between leadership style and organizational productivity. Methods The research study will use a quantitative survey design, as it aims to find if there is a relationship between leadership style, motivation and organizational productivity. A quantitative research study is one wherein the variables used are quantifiable or measurable, and relationships among variables can be found through the use of appropriate mathematical and statistical tools (Creswell, 2003). A survey design for quantitative research uses a set of struct ured questions in order to derive the required information (Agresti & Finlay, 2009). A pre-piloted questionnaire will be given to the respondents in order to identify the leadership style of their superior, the level of motivation that they have at work, and their level of organizational productivity. The respondents will be taken from a list of employees of Ford Company. Stratified random sampling will be used in order to ident

Everyday Use by Alice Walker Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Everyday Use by Alice Walker - Essay Example However, her hopes are dashed when Dee returns with different world views and opinions about her heritage. Walker develops the theme of the meaning of heritage through the plot when Dee constructs a new heritage for herself after being angered by the oppression she feels exists in her family. Dee’s character is seen to have rejected her family legacy by giving herself a new name which she believes truthfully represents her African heritage. Dee’s renaming is the author’s way of trying to connect the past and indicates the flexible nature of identity. Walker does not mention Mama’s real name nor does he explain the foundation of Maggie’s name and this is meant to depict their unchanging and strong ties to their heritage and family legacy. The lack of name changing by the two characters shows that their identities are stable. Dee’s name changing reflects on her lack of belief in her true heritage as she believes that her name represents the fam ily oppressors, and views it as racist. Walker uses Dee’s character to portray the many confusing ideas that many African Americans have about their true heritage. Dee is seen not to truly understand the meaning of being African and all her actions to look African are viewed as meaningless. She differs greatly from her sister Maggie when she arrives from college and wants to possess some family quilt heirlooms. Dee does not seem to see the quilts as useful and would prefer to use them as artifacts to be used as decorations to represent a time that is long lost and from the past. Mama and Dee, however, view the quilts as very important in the family and believe that the quilts represent the presence of those that made and used the quilts. They see the quilts to be true tokens of their family origin and heritage as opposed to foreign and impersonal objects. The conflict between the three women intensifies when Mama chooses Maggie to be the one to own the quilts, as she believes that she will treat them with respect by using them in the way they were intended to be used. The theme of the diverse power of education is developed by the author through the depiction of how Dee’s achievement of higher education proves to be more divisive to the family’s relationship. Dee’s character is used by the author to show how education can change one’s view of heritage and culture. The education that Dee has received has alienated her from her family and she views her family home to be strange. Family values have been replaced by arrogant ideals and a loss of identity and heritage that only family can provide. Walker uses Dee’s character to show how education can influence an individual’s view of the life that they live. Dee’s education has caused her to have a different view on heritage and family legacy therefore causing her to disrespect anything but her own view. Walker uses the characters to depict how education, or t he lack of, is harmful. Due to her ignorance and lack of education, Maggie is seen to have hampered her achievement of self fulfillment. She is portrayed as one who has accepted the circumstances of her protected life and one who does what they are told. Walker uses the yard as a symbol to represent an area devoid of the short comings and regrets that fill Mama’s life. The yard appears in the beginning of the narrative as it is being thoroughly prepared for Dee’s arrival form college. The yard is used as a symbol that represents freedom and the lack of

College Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

College Writing - Essay Example Further, college students have come out as lacking in the skills of determining which information is relevant, how to obtain it and then how to evaluate the information critically before using it in their writing (Perelman, 130). The major controversy therefore is whether college students are actually lacking in the skills of utilizing sources of information effectively, or the college grading systems have forced the students to misuse the information sources. Nevertheless, whether through summarizing or paraphrasing, college students are not generally lacking in skills of information internalization and subsequent application in their work. Rather, the grading systems of the testing organizations are forcing the students to misuse or misapply the sources. Most contemporary argument regarding the best ways in which college students should complete their academic work and papers hold that summary is the most effective method of students obtaining information from sources. This argument holds that summary enabled students to obtain information from a source in a critical manner, and then incorporate it in their own work, since summary â€Å"compel the writer to understand the source† (Howard, Serviss and Rodrigue, 177). On the other hand, it is argued that paraphrasing is the most suitable method of the college students using information obtained from their sources, owing to the fact that information is most effective as a paraphrase, when it has been written in students’ own words (Perelman, 131). However, the problem may not even rest in which method students should apply in utilizing sources of information and incorporating them in their work. The major issue is what could be the reason behind the students using their s ources in the way the use them. The grading criteria approved and applied by the College Board requires that a

Fashion, Culture and Region Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fashion, Culture and Region - Research Paper Example The paper "Fashion, Culture and Region" explores the region, fashion and culture. Many individuals including great scholars have come up with a variety of definitions concerning the meaning of fashion. According to Severini (2015), fashion is a popular trend, in particular in manner of behavior and style of dressing. The above definition with other definitions that individuals and great scholars have come up with have a common concept, feeling and looking great. If an individual is fashionable, that individual is considered as being confident. That individual is sure that the right message is being conveyed to provide a specific impression to other individuals. This implies that being fashionable surely assists an individual in getting the courage to take the first step towards achieving set goals. In light of this, does the culture of a particular region play an important role in affecting its trend in its fashion industry? If it does, what fashion design programs can be created for this type of culture? This memo report will address these two questions. Let us begin with the history of fashion. Throughout history, fashion has had a long history of errors and trials. What was known to be fashionable in the past might be similar to destroying fashion in the present times. Likewise, what is known to be fashionable in the present times might have been seen as fashion suicide by people living in the past. Therefore, the period of time and beliefs held by the individuals living in it.

Business Proposal for Proposed a New Product in the Market Named as Term Paper

Business Proposal for Proposed a New Product in the Market Named as TECTEL - Term Paper Example I-sensor (intruder sensor device) will run on a broad level of production. This will enable the creation of more industries to increase the knowledgeability of the product among its consumers in the market (Holtz, 1990, 57). The number of workers ought to be standardized in order to allow the creation of more products for sales. This will ensure that the I-sensor machine dominates the market for a long time, thus; more sales for the product. The market size should be able to participate rapidly with the existing market as well as large enough with an opportunity to establish them. Most markets investors, shareholders and senior managers are often skeptical to invest resources because, since the markets do not yet exist, the markets may be too small, or not exist at all. The team requirements for I-sensor will be should aim at working achieving the main objectives of the TECTEL Company. Therefore, there should be the inspiration team carries out activities that create an effective atm osphere amongst workforces. The group’s tasks can incorporate actions such as hosting servant lunches, planning association picnics, fundraising for poor workers, and fundraising for philanthropic causes. The safety and ecological group ensure the security of workforces in the workplace. The team takes the lead in security teaching and how to use the I-sensor, scheduled safety conferences, and the reviewing of maintenance, safety, and office union. The employee wellness team emphasizes on health and suitability for all employees (Holtz, 1990, 77). Culture and Communication Team works to describe and generate the defined company culture required for the accomplishment of your organization. According to Holtz, (1990, 102), the team also nurtures dual communication in your business to guarantee employee participation up to the chain of command. The team may champion the monthly bulletin, a weekly company appraise, quarterly employee gratification surveys, and an employee proposi tion process. Start several company teams, such as these, and support their triumph.     

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy Assignment - 1

Evaluating an International HRM Strategy - Assignment Example At the same time, the company should introduce active employee participation policy. The Chinese food and beverage market has become the largest market in the world (Asia Perspective, 2014). Asia Perspective (2014) maintains that the current status of the Chinese food and beverage market is contributed by the fact that the Chinese economy has experienced a phenomenal growth in the recent years and has been able to maintain the growth trend over these years; and it is the fruit of this sustainable economic growth that has enabled its food and beverages market to obtain and retain the current status; consequently, it has attracted many local and international firms to invest in its growing food and beverage market. This graph clearly demonstrates the market potential of Chinese grocery market. The table highlights that the current grocery market are mainly shared by both local and international investors in which lead or majority of the market share is owned by Wal-Mart China as reflected by the table 01. At the same time, some local companies are also competing in the market. Due to this collective investment of both local and international investors, the Chinese grocery market has become balanced as it enables the consumers to experience the benefit of healthy competition in which they will be able to buy products at very competitive prices. In addition, China has a very strong and stable consumer purchasing power and this trend has experienced a sustainable growth and stability over these years. For example, consumers aged 25 to 39 remain the highest earners and they continue to increase as the Chinese market has stable job market for the current and potential graduates (Global Analysis Report, 2014). Fierce competition is unavoidable in the Chinese grocery market. the current trend highlights that many local and international firms actively pursuing their

Advertisment procedure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Advertisment procedure - Essay Example Division of audience into small groups because of the increasing number of media outlets is called audience fragmentation. The increasing number of television channels, internet related ad technologies, digital signage etc have opened new opportunities for the advertising people and it is difficult for them to attract a wide range of people towards their ads because of the audience fragmentation. Most of the television like medias depends on their ad revenues and in order to get a substantial revenue from ads they need to attract as much as audiences or viewers as possible. Audience fragmentation is a major threat for such television like medias. Business media consolidation is a term used to refer the phenomenon of majority of the media outlets being owned by a small number of corporations. For example, Keith Rupert Murdoch has almost monopolized world of entertainments by introducing variety of print and television medias like, New York Post, The Herald and Weekly Times Ltd, The Times, The Sunday Times, The Sun, American satellite TV systems, Star networks, Fox networks, etc. In order to conquer the internet, he started the social networking website like myspace.com. Such media consolidation is a big threat to the advertising world since, these corporate which controls majority of the media will try to execute their missions and visions through these media in order to safeguard their interests. The Consumer Credit (Advertisements) Regulations aim to ensure that credit advertisements give a clear and balanced view of the nature and costs of the credit on offer. The Regulations extend to all forms of advertising, including in print (for example, newspapers, circular letters, flyers, catalogues or billboards), on television or radio, on the internet, on teletext or by way of telephone canvassing (Credit advertising).

The Word Essay Example for Free

The Word Essay It is probably the hurtful racial word ever created. It is a word known primarily as a means to degrade African Americans. The word packs such power to represent overt racial hatred; most people regardless of race will not even say it. In the dictionary the word nigger means, usually offensive, a member of any dark-skinned race and ignorant. The n word is word used to cause pain to African American people it is used to offend us so use it. It is a degrading word; a word that whit people used to as they use to say put us in our place. So why do we think it is ok to us it as a term of endearment. It was used as a word that brought our ancestors so much pain so why do we feel it ok to use it when they fought so hard to end the use of the word against them. The NAACP had a funeral for the N as a way to put an end of use of the word, as a way to show the world that the word had no more meaning or pain when used as a put down, but the world still uses the word. Some people don’t even know the meaning of the word but still use it thinking its cool or the thing to do. Since the meaning of the word changed in the African American community people think its ok to use if you change the ending of the word from â€Å"er† to an â€Å"a† it is still the same word and in turn has the same meaning and should still not be used. Most people do not even know what the word means. t a word that brings pain to African American people and remind us that we are inferior and beneath white people. And we use it as a term of love, endearment. Changing the meaning dose not erase the pain it caused to our ancestors. The word should not be used especially by African American people in college because being in college shows that you are educated to get this far and the word means you are ignorant not educated, and in turn degrading yourself .

Roe Through the Chain of Command Essay Example for Free

Roe Through the Chain of Command Essay President Johnson implemented the Rules of Engagement (ROE) during the war in Vietnam, particularly Southeast Asia. His intention for this set of rules was a means of control. The ROE dictated who (of the enemy) and where the American troops were allowed to attack, even if they were clearly within enemy reach. This set of rules benefited the hierarchy in the Chain of Command, but had a much less desirable effect on those who actually carried out the rules. This paper will explore the ROE and how it affected the military through the Chain of Command. Soldiers were limited in their ability to defend. The ROE paralyzed them from shooting even when they were shot at because the rules stated they must be certain their target is the enemy and not terrified civilians. They were only allowed to attack other soldiers and/or those dressed in combat gear with weapons (Moss, 2010). This negatively impacted the soldiers’ will to fight because they felt the ROE were not in place to protect them but to enforce political policy. Their requests were ignored. When in combat, the ROE forced the soldiers to keep their safety and preservation of their lives secondary while continuing to follow rules set forth by commanders on safe grounds (Moss, 2010). Battalion commanders are responsible for their battalion (300-1,000 soldiers) and the commands they are to execute during battle (United states army, para. 1). The Battalion commanders had the responsibility to directly enforce the ROE to the soldiers of the battalion. If the soldiers did not follow commands correctly or effectively, the Battalion commanders must answer to the Commander in Chief and suffer the consequences if any. The ROE limited the commanders from utilizing their sophisticated weaponry and equipment to its fullest capability. The Division commanders were considered experts in the military. However, their expertise was disregarded and ignored by the President. The Division commander would instruct and guide their soldiers to carry out well planned attack strategies but were often overridden by those higher up in command based on the ROE. What made sense to the Division commander was secondary to the restrictions of the ROE. The commanders were able to increase and add to the ROE but they were not allowed to reduce the rules or bend the rules in any way (Moss, 2010). The Division Commander was faced with great difficulty of knowing the enemy was at an advantage due to the ROE because their goal was to defeat the enemy. It seems the ROE had a different goal. In 1967, Gen William Westmoreland initiated his war of attrition in hopes of victory. Westmoreland requested 2000,000 additional troops to expand the military against the VC/NVA forces, among other requests. President Johnson denied these requests. President Johnson only approved 55,000 additional troops (moss, 2010, p. 216). General Westmoreland was one of the commanders whose expertise was ignored and overridden by President Johnson and Secretary McNamara. He was forced to give Americans false information on the US status of the war; this was demeaning to his professionalism. The department of Defense was responsible for informing Vietnam troops of ROE’s implementations and changes. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara delegated to the Joint Chief of Staff to provide the commanders with the rules. Debates were held when changes to the ROE occurred and Secretary McNamara was often the mediator who settled those debates. Again, during these debates, military advise from experts was often ignored (Drake, 1992 p. 9). It became apparent that the purpose of the ROE was to continue protecting decision makers President Johnson and Secretary McNamara. President Lyndon Johnson initiated the ROE’s in avoidance of the Soviet Union and China interferences. The ROE’s restricted the military commanders and â€Å"†¦played a major part in the failure of U.  S air power in this singular black mark on the record of American military aviation† (Dorschel, 1995, para. 1). President Johnson was hopeful that the ROE would be effective in controlling the temperament of the war. He was also using this limited war tactic to win votes during the 1964 elections. â€Å"The new president (Johnson) also feared that the injection of U. S. combat forces into the Vietnam War would provoke adverse reactions throughout the world and trigger uprisings of domestic opposition that could stifle his domestic reform program and cost him the 1964 presidential election (Moss, 2010 p. 122). President Johnson was convinced the military commanders were more concerned with spending and he did not consider their expertise and professional input when decisions were made during combat. â€Å"The president and his advisors often disregarded the advice of military experts, believing that: Generals know only two words: spend and bomb (Dorschel, 1995, para. 12). † It is apparent that the Rules of Engagement was used as a political tool to secure positions in office of President Johnson and General Westmoreland with disregard of preserving the integrity of soldiers, pilots, and commanders. The training nd skills of the troops were not appreciated and were completely negated by via the ROE. â€Å"Crews were forced to fly in predictable ways, fly the same routes over and over, and operate in ways that went against their training and experience. The continuous changes to the rules and the complexity of them made learning and remembering them a difficult task and the predictable nature of the campaign and the protected areas in North Vietnam caused heavy American losses. It was all but impossible to inflict the kind of damage necessary to achieve the stated goals of the offensive (Dorschel, 1995, para. 25).

Consent Treatment Children

Consent Treatment Children This assignment will be an in depth exploration of consent to treatment in children as an issue affecting practice .An analysis of both ethical and legal perspectives relating to consent to treatment will be explored and the possible solutions will be highlighted .In ethical issues the following will be looked at : autonomy ,beneficence, non-maleficence and justice. The legal issues such as duty of care and decision making will be analysed .The parental and professional responsibilities and their implications will be dealt with. The attached scenario examines some of the ethical and legal issues that may arise concerning parental decision making regarding surgery on children. It uses two cases, each of which raises issues concerning childrens competence to be involved in decisions; the notions of best interests and best health interests; how interests are related to wishes and welfare the role of parents in assessing best interests and parental rights in deciding for their children.T he scenario is attached on appendix 1 1.Ethics is relevant to clinical, practice-based issues and it affects all areas of nursing practice. It is concerned with right or wrong although agreeing on what is right can be challenging (Chaloner 2007).Ethics and law are closely related 2.In the healthcare practice the Utilitarian ethics (Bentham 1748-1932 and Mills 1806-1873 and the Deontological theories cited by Cooke and Hurley (2008)are commonly used to resolve moral dilemmas. The two theories take opposing views about the rightness and wrongness of acts and decisions. Patients are individual persons with their own opinions and aims in life, which require them to act intelligently in what they do. In order for them to act intelligently they need to be allowed to make their own decisions and given the right information. Deontology is a theory that says decision should be based on whether or not an action is morally right with no regard for the result or consequences. Utilitarianism is a theory that is bases decision on the greatest good for the greatest number (Videbeck 2006). Autonomy is the principle of self determination, freedom of choice or being your own person (Parker and Dickenson 2001). Chaloner (2007) viewed autonomy as the idea of moral reflection, for example choosing your own moral position and accepting responsibility for the kind of person you are In agreement with above definition ,Hendrick (2004) equated autonomy with integrity, dignity and independence and identified it with qualities such as self assertion and critical reflection .Autonomy literally means self rule. Respect for autonomy demands that healthcare professionals respect autonomous choices made by patients and that patients are not deceived about their diagnosis (Brazier 2003).For example the nurse respects the client’s autonomy through patient’s rights, informed consent and encouraging the client to make choices about his or her health care. Videbeck (2006) defined the principle of beneficence as one’s duty to benefit or to promote good for others. Maclean (2001)viewed beneficence as a positive obligation to provide and to balance benefits against risks and costs . From a nursing perspective the responsibility for the patient’s well being and avoiding actions that are detrimental to them as laid down within the code of conduct Therefore the principle of beneficence supports the obligation to do good. Nonmaleficence is the requirement to do no harm to others either intentionally or unintentionally(Videbeck 2006).It requires that one should not inflict harm to others .Contrary to beneficence ,nonmaleficence is a negative obligation which can only occur through an act of commission to inflict harm on others as opposed to an act of omission even when such an act of omission results in harm to another person. Justice refers to fairness ,that is treating all people fairly and equally without regard for social or economic status ,race ,sex, marital status religion or cultural beliefs (Stauch et al 2006, Videbeck 2006).The above principles have a significant in meaning in health care. Therefore the nurse can minimise the risk of lawsuits through safe competent nursing care and accurate documentation. For instance ,the clause of the Code of Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC 2008) states that nurses have a duty of care to their patients who are entitled to receive safe and competent care. 3.Consent refers to the right of the individual in law to determine what shall be done to his or her body (Rodger 2000).This statement is supported by Griffith (2004) who clarifies that consent is a state of mind personal to the patient where they agree to the violation of bodily integrity. In clinical environment this includes the right of the individual to refuse treatment even if the outcome of this is detrimental and may even cause death. For consent to be valid in law a patient must be capable of making that decision (Tingle and Crib 2003). Dimond (2005) explains how capacity to consent was established in a case where a judge suggested a three part test to determine whether a patient possessed the capacity to consent :the patient must understand and retain the relevant information, he must believe in it and be able to weigh this information in the balance before reaching a decision (McHale and Tingle 2004).However this process should be free of any duress. The practical significance of the law of consent is that it encourages a patient’s trust , co-operation and confidence and it protects the practitioners from criminal charges and civil claims whey they treat patients. Failure to obtain consent may result in legal action or disciplinary procedures against the practitioner by their regulatory body (Rodgers 2000). Rational for choice. Children and young people are believed to be incapable of weighting the risks and benefits . Children, because of age-related reasons are a vulnerable population and protecting their health is a social ,scientific and emotional priory (Merlo et al 2007).They are considered to be vulnerable subjects with whom special protection is needed. The Mental Capacity Act (2005) concurs with above by providing a statutory framework to empower and protect vulnerable people who are not able to make their own decisions. The dying, the aged who may be unable to comprehend the implications of treatment and the mentally ill or those with learning disabilities all fall into the category and are considered to be vulnerable. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (2008) clause 3.9 informs the nursing staff of their professional duty towards children in the matter of consent and maintains that nurses must be aware of the legislation and the local protocols. In the Royal Bristol Infirmary Inquiry ,Kennedy (200 1) highlighted that some of the recommendations were that the parents and the public should be included in decisions about their treatment and care of their children. Ibid (2001) suggested that for the future, children in hospital must be cared for in a child-centred environment, by staff trained in caring for children and in facilities appropriate to their needs. In the modern era, the ethics of nursing has shifted more toward the promotion of these rights and the duties of the nurse (McHale Gallagher 2003). This principle was identified previously in the Patients Charter: Services for Children and Young People (Department of Health, 1996) which highlighted the rights of children and young people to be involved in choices about their care and treatment. In order to design and deliver services around children and young people, their voices need to be heard and their perspectives acknowledged. Legal consent rests on the competence of the individual while the ethical aspects of consent are concerned with the respect and autonomy of the individual (Tschudin 2003). 5.Identify legal aspects make links with ethical concepts under discusion The present age of consent in children was established in the Family Law Reform Act 1969 (Dimond 2003) .Section one of this act gives a young person of 16 or 17 the statutory right to give consent in their own right, without also obtaining from their parents .A paternalistic decision must be made to protect the children from any harmful consequences, as the nature of medical decisions is complex( Chadwick and Tadd 2003). Recently there has been a growing recognition of the rights of children, backed by legal instruments such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 and, in the UK, the Children Act 1989.Also the International Council of Nurses (ICN 2007) advocates for promoting the rights of the hospitalised child, including parental involvement in caring for the sick or institutionalised child or the child being cared for in the community. These represent a shift from a highly paternalist view to a more rights-based approach in recognising the rights of children to adult protection alongside a right to participate (Parekh, 2006).Children do have rights as enshrined from the international and national legislation. For example the United Nations Convention on the rights of the Child (1998) advocates for the rights of every child to self determination, dignity , respect, non-interference and the right to make informed decisions. The European Charter for Children in hospital (1988) states that children and parents have the right to informed participation in all decisions involving their health care. The legislation asserts that every child should be protected from unnecessary medical treatment and investigation. The Children Act 1989 insists that children’s wishes and feelings should be incorporated into the decision making concerning them. As observed in practice the tension between respecting and promoting children’s autonomy and recognising that often children need protecting from harm is not the one that can be easily be resolved.. DECISION MAKING PROCESS Ethical decision making is a rational way of making decisions in nursing practice. Decisions cannot be made in a scattered, disorganised way based on entirely on intuition or emotions. Wrong decisions are made because they are often made in haste, and may be based on past experience rather than new situations. Sometimes they are made without consultations and may be over-analysed (McGuire 2002).In making clinical decisions McGuire( 2002) agreed with Aiken (1994), six step process which is divided into six levels: identify, analyse data (2) State the dilemma (3) consider the choices of action (4) analyse the positives and negatives of each course of action (5)make the decisions (6) evaluate the effectiveness of the decision. With regard to the Children Act 1989 ,parental responsibility includes the right of parents to consent to treatment on behalf of their child provided that the treatment is in the child’s best interest (BMA 2005). However , in practice there can be conflicting obligations and ethical dilemma ,if the practitioner does not believe that the parents are acting in the child’s best interests. It was felt that Danny’s parents were not acting in his best interests. The practitioner can apply to the court for assistance under section eight of The Children’s Act 1989 to prohibit the parents from exercising their parental responsibility(McHale and Tingle 2004). Children under the age of 16 are not regarded automatically and legally competent to make decisions about their health care .Danny is below the age of 16 and his parents have the power to consent. However, they have refused to give consent and the given scenario is that Danny’s life is at risk. The healt h care professionals have the right to act in the best interest, Dimond (2003). If the nurse considers that the child may be exposed to significant harm as a result of the parents refusal of consent , then section 47 of the Children Act 1989 places a duty on the local authority to assess the situation and to decide the best way forward (Pocock 2003). In this scenario of Danny the actions of the nurses are consistent with the principle of beneficence. The principle of beneficence requires healthcare givers to strive to promote the interests of their clients by conferring benefits upon them (Maclean 2001).The ethical principle of nonmaleficence is executed for instance when the nurses consider that the patient may be exposed to a significant harm .The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE 2006) suggested that treatment and care should take into account patients individual needs and preferences. Good communication is essential, supported by evidence-based information to allow patients to reach informed decisions about their care. However, Danny is considered to be competent to give valid consent because he had demonstrated a level of competence equivalent to that of adults since he understood what is proposed (Department of Health, 2001). Kennedy and Grub (1998) cited by Griffith (2004) argue that for children to have ful ly autonomous they pass through three developmental stages :the child of tender age ,the Gillick competent child and children16 and 17 years old. This ruling came about as a result of the legal case Gillick v. West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority (1986) AC 112, which challenged the legal right of a medical practitioner to provide contraceptive advice and treatment to girls under the age of 16 without the consent of their parents (Mason and Laurie 2005). After lengthy legal proceedings, this trial was taken to the House of Lords. The Law Lords found in favour of the Health Authority. The key concept is that the child has the capacity to consent which has been referred to as Gillick or Fraser competence (DoH 2001). The Gillick Decision defined competence as the ability to understand information about the proposed treatment ,its purpose ,nature, risks and likely side effects(Shaw 2001).Although Danny’s parents had declined to give consent his behalf ,by law he was permitted to give his own consent. Danny was deemed ‘Gillick’ or ‘Fraser’ competent since he met the criteria laid down in th e assessment of capacity. He had demonstrated the he found out the benefits of the operation and that he could retained the information enough to relate it to the healthcare professionals involved. The principles of nonmaleficience and beneficence in nursing practice can lead to paternalism as pointed out by (Beauchamp and Childress 2001).The Children Act 1989 stipulates that parental responsibility includes the rights of parents to consent to treatment on behalf of their child provided that the treatment is in the child’s best interests(BMA 2005).This view of children’s rights in relation to autonomy and consent to treatment assumes that children are incompetent. However this paternalistic view does not consider the ethical principles of self-determination and autonomy of the child as laid down in the children Act( 1989) and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989).Consent in children also relies on the ethical principle of justice, which requires equal treatment for all with no discrimination on the basis of age. The National Service Framework for Children, Young People and Maternity Services (DoH 2004) states that there has been a shift i n government policy to respect the autonomy of children. The issue of consent is related to the ethical principle of autonomy , an individual’s ability to make his or her decisions. It requires nurses to respect the choices clients make about their own lives (Hendrick 2000,NMC 2008).The utilitarian view would also support Danny being operated at the time, as it would correct and relieve the pain. Other options open to the nurse were to seek advice from the NMC advice service or to apply to the courts for an opinion in law as it was felt that Danny’s parents were not acting in his best interests. The other solution might have been to encourage Danny to share his feelings with his parents. Role of a Nurse As observed in practice the nurses’s decision about children’s consent can often be influenced by own experiences of parenthood. The Kennedy Report (2001) emphasised the need for specialist training to be given to healthcare professionals who deal with children regularly. The NMC( 2008) states that the nurse has a duty of care to the client. It sets out standards for achieving this duty of care, including obtaining consent from legally competent, informed person who gives consent voluntarily .For the children under the age of 16 awareness of local protocols and further guidelines from the should be followed .Nurses are often uncertain whether they should respect children’s wishes or whether they risk breaking the law (Lowsden 2002).However anxiety about litigation may lead to defensive practice, which is not in the child’s best interests. In order to promote greater respect for the children’s autonomy nurses should keep up date with legal development which may have a bearing on practice .In order to promote a greater respect for autonomy in children , the commonly held attitudes and prejudices about children’s rights need to be addressed through education and relevant training .Consent in children also relies on the ethical principle of justice which requires equal treatment for all with no discrimination on the basis of age .In the document ,the Essence of Care (DoH, 2003) the NHS encourages healthcare professionals to ensure that high quality of care by exploring the benefits of benchmarking .This document focuses on privacy ,dignity and modesty as the cornerstone of freedom and autonomy. The essence of care offers nurses a toolkit for comparing, sharing and reflecting on the best practices, in order to improve care offered to clients(Davies 2003).In agreement with the above section 2.2 of the (NMC 200 8) states that a nurse is accountable to promote and protect patients privacy and dignity. Ensure good communication with parents Nordam et al (2005) considers that good nursing care should involve the knowledge, language and communication between nurses and the members of the multidisciplinary team. Consultation with colleagues to ensure the best possible basis for the professional opinion is offered. Nurses and other healthcare professionals should ensure good communication with parents and as far as possible with the child, since communication is a two way and should attempt to ensure that both parties understand the other’s preferred options and the reasons for these. Therefore co-operation and communication between professionals will improve efficiency as well as promoting a conducive working environment. Renee (2007) supported the above by stating that developing an ethical framework will facilitate making a decision that is beneficial for both the patient and the nursing team. To conclude this assignment I would say that the principles of beneficence ,non maleficence ,justice autonomy and respect are the characteristics which all healthcare professionals should have in order to avoid ethical dilemmas and litigation. Nurses should continue to advocate for patients. The needs and safety of the patients must always come first.

Princess Diana Spoke Volumes on AIDS Awareness :: essays research papers

During Princess Diana's life she helped with many foundations and charities. But she finally dedicated herself to one cause in particular. Princess Diana became very involved with helping AIDS sufferers and their families. Starting in the early nineties until her death in 1997 Diana did everything she could to help all AIDS foundations. Even though she was regal, she did not consider herself better than any AIDS sufferer, and constantly held AIDS victims and visted them when everyone else was afraid of their touch. Princess Diana first became interested in helping the needy when she was in high school. Diana fisrt started charitable works with the Voluntary Service Unit, where she would visit mentally handicapped teenagers. While many of Diana's friends were afraid and resistant about visiting Darenth Park, a huge mental hospital, Diana found that she had a natural desire for this work. Even though Diana was a princess and part of the royal family, she was not afraid to help AIDS vi ctims and sufferers. Diana wasnt afraid to touch or even hug kids or adults who had AIDS or were HIV-positive. On the other hand,the Queen, the Queen's sister, and the queen's niece always wore gloves when merely shaking hands. "Everyone needs hugs" Diana once said. Diana, Princess of Wales, was the first royal family member to openly work with and support AIDS victims. "I touch people, I think everyone needs that,"stated Diana when discussing about how she freely hugs and touches AIDS patients and people who are HIV-positive. In 1989, Diana made one of her first public visits to an AIDS facility in England.Diana started her work with AIDS during a very hard time in her life. Even though Diana could have quit her charitable works after her divorce, she embraced them with a renewed passion. Diana's support for AIDS victims and sufferers came a crucial time when tabloids and her royal family didnt fully approve of her works.Diana became a favorite around normal, ev eryday people because she made them feel loved. Diana thought it was normal to touch and have conversations with AIDS patients when others wouldnt go near them. Diana conquered public fear of AIDS when she held a baby with AIDS in Washington in her arms. Diana was special because she won people's devotions by simply being devoted to them. To many people Diana was a hero because she actually listened and understood AIDS patients, as well as show affection and love.

F.D.R.s Influence as President Essay -- Franklin Delano Roosevelt Ame

F.D.R.'s Influence as President Some have called him the best president yet. Others have even claimed that he was the world's most influential and successful leader of the twentieth century. Those claims can be backed up by the overwhelming support that he received from his citizens throughout his four terms in office. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt began a new era in American history by ending the Great Depression that the country had fallen into in 1929. His social reforms gave people a new perspective on government. Government was not only expected to protect the people from foreign invaders, but to protect against poverty and joblessness. Roosevelt had shown his military and diplomatic skill as the Commander in Chief during World War II. This wartime leadership and international relations policy won him an award in the hearts of many Americans. Roosevelt threw his hat in the ring in 1931 in order to prepare for the election of 1932. Democratic Party chairman James A Farley directed his campaign. He started a nationwide radio address, outlining a program to meet the economic problems of the nation. He coined the term "forgotten man" to mean all of those who had been hard hit by the evils of the depression. These radio addresses were the start to what he called the "fireside chats". Overall, Roosevelt was the most energetic and dynamic candidate, and he was nominated by the party on the fourth ballot. Although he displayed excellent characteristics, his competition was fairly tough. He was up against John Nance Garner of Texas (who would be his Vice Presidential running mate); Newton D. Baker of Ohio, who was former Secretary of War; and former Governor Alfred E. Smith of New York. For three ballots, Roosevelt held a large lead, but lacked the two- thirds margin necessary for victory. Farley then promised John Garner the vice presidential nomination, which he accepted grudgingly. Then FDR took the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot. One of the purposes of the national convention is to bring the party together in a movement of support behind the nominated candidate. Although there was rough competition during the choosing process, most party leaders were happy with the Roosevelt choice. It would help pull votes from the urban-Eastern region of the country. Also, Roosevelt m... ...US river gunboat, the USS Panay, on the Yangtze River, killing two US citizens. This event infuriated the American public as well as the Roosevelt Administration. However, the US protested the Japanese action rather than demanding action taken against them. Roosevelt used his diplomatic power and refused to recognize the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo in Northern China until there was an official apology. Shortly after Roosevelt's statement, Japan made an official apology to the US and offend to pay for the damages in full. Although Roosevelt set his sights upon a global society, many Americans disagreed. This school of thought led to the Neutrality Acts of the 1930's. These acts, passed by Congress, prohibited the US from furnishing weapons or supplies to any nation at war. President Roosevelt hoped that any more of these laws that would be enacted in the future would allow more flexibility. He disliked the fact that these Acts treated all nations the same, whether a country had attacked another or not. World War II began on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland. Still, many Americans did not agree that the situation was as dangerous.

Jamaica’s Troubled Past Essay -- A Level Essays

Jamaica’s Troubled Past ‘The Maroons’ Jamaica’s fighting spirit can be seen even in its early days with the Maroons. The fighting spirit is not uncommon with people who are oppressed or forced against their will. The Maroons came in two waves, the first are slaves that fled during the Spanish rule, the second wave was during British control. The Maroons used the highlands of Jamaica to seek refuge, establish colonies and attack plantations when needed. Even today the beliefs and herbal practices of the Maroons are still evident in Jamaican culture. Their trouble past has made their life difficult but even today they are a presence in Jamaica. The First Deserters The idea of runaways did not take long in the Caribbean islands. Jamaica was not the only island experiencing runaways, Haiti, Cuba, and many Latin American countries were all falling victim to these guerilla style warfare tribes. During the first years of Spanish control the island of Hispaniola (Spanish Jamaica) experienced many problems with slaves. Columbus suggested to King Ferdinand in the first letter from his voyage of discovery, "I can bring slaves that are captured people, as many as are wanted." Disease and overwork killed many of the peaceable, indigenous Arawaks. Others hanged themselves, drank poisonous cassava juice, murdered and aborted their children rather than be enslaved. A few, the first Maroons, escaped into the craggy hills. (Olson, pg.234) Recent excavations at Nanny Town, the most important early Maroon settlement, support Maroon oral traditions that the first African refugees found accommodation among the Arawak. (Olson, pg.234) Correspondence from the last decade of the sixteenth century also suggests that Spanish colonial officials w... ...keth. Obeah; Witchcraft in the West Indies. Negro Universities Press. Westport, Connecticut. 1970. Buckley, Roger. Slaves in Red Coats. Yale University Pess, New Haven, CT. 1979. Campbell, Marvis. The Maroons of Jamaica 1655-1796. African World Press, Inc. Trenton, NJ. 1990. Drescher, Seymour. Econocide British Slavery in the Era of Abolition. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA. 1977 Hall, Gwendolyn. Social Control in Slave Plantation Societies. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 1971. Olson, Eric. (Feb 2000). Mountain Rebels: The Flight from Slavery of Jamaicas’s Maroons. World and I v15:2, p234. Available: Expanded Academic Research. Reidell, Heidi. (Jan-Feb 1990). The Maroon culture of endurance. (history of Jamaica's runaway slaves) Americas (English Edition) v42 n1, p46(4). Available: Expanded Academic Research.

America Land of Hypocrats

Every aspect of the modern world has been wracked with scandals often involving many prominent personalities. Politicians, entertainers, athletes and socialites have been the target of many open accusations on wrong doings. More often than not, scandals or wrongdoings which are sexual in nature are the very ones that are discovered, spread and read in the papers. The private lives of individuals involved are laid open for public consumption as embarrassing sexual activities are investigated and ridiculed.They are usually the stories of people we read in the papers, hear being blamed and criticized on air, viewed and discussed amongst hosts and guests of television talk shows and the butt of jokes in common break-time conversations. The sexual behavior of famous people has become a huge part of entertainment as the media strives to outdo one another to give the most titillating and sexually adventurous background of a story.Throughout the decades, the sexual lives of prominent figures like politicians and rich businessmen who erred beyond their marital bed were often morally ridiculed. Their sexual escapades were told and retold to the next person aching to listen, and listeners came in droves ultimately hungry for a kill. The more famous the individual is, the bigger the likelihood of having his/her sexual activities discussed openly among ordinary individuals. We have seen many men exalted into political positions and fame getting involved with inappropriate sexual behavior.As their lives become public knowledge, they suffer invariable disgrace and have their reputations ruined forever. Political and military leaders are assumed to have an attitude possessing integrity as a quality that allows people, mostly his constituents and subordinates to grant him trust and respect commensurate to his public office and position. His favorable actions are considered above reproach and praised thus requiring him to conduct himself with dignity at all times.However, a sing le immoral deed when discovered and exposed could mark the end of his political career as his image becomes tarnished with relevant proof and negative criticisms. President Jefferson went down in the annals of history accused of maintaining a â€Å"Congo Harem† and fornicating with a slave, â€Å"Sally Hemmings† (Fitch, 2004:247). Likewise in a much publicized determination over the personal relationship between Monica Lewinsky and President Bill Clinton, another congressional inquiry morally questioned the sexual liaisons of Gary Condit and Chandra Levy (Fitch, 2004: 248).In the past, sexual behavior has been delegated to create a barometer for acceptable and non-acceptable sexual behavior and punishing it with public humiliation and loss of status (Apostolidis and Williams, 2004: 20). As an egalitarian society that fights to uphold a doctrine that strives to treat all men as equals, we are suddenly faced with the pressing question of accepting sexual behavior and rel axing our relentless probing of tawdry affairs between sexes regardless of affiliation within the realms of politics or seemingly allowing Victorian attitudes to morally judge a person.Considering the very nature of sexual scandals that wracked the nation has often been synonymously targeted against individuals whose relevant positions make them vulnerable to suppression and control by a higher force within the political system, are we not prone to maneuvers instead? Statement of the Problem In a ripe age of modernity amidst an age of sex scandals and political maneuvers and machinations, we are faced with the question over an understanding of human sexuality as a human nature and an acceptance of natural responses to consensual sexual behavior regardless of gender and identity.Purpose of the Study In the study of sexual scandals within the American politics, our aim is to explain normal sexual behavior and the natural human response. Political figures being humans themselves are de finitely not averse to acts and deeds related to sex which is the subject of this study. In the understanding of human sexuality, this study will likewise explain how the natural human response have been brutally exposed and expanded to portray an overly unacceptable behavior particularly among prominent political figures as a motive for political party destruction and black propaganda.This study shall finally explain how collegiate students can exercise a modicum of understanding rather than moral ridicule over sexual behavior among people holding public office without necessarily promoting a relaxation of moral values among political leaders. Review of Related Literature The Human Natural Response to Sex Countless studies have supported that humans have a need for sex reconstructed and made clear in an unceasing receptivity that goes far beyond reproduction (Diamond, 1998: 67).For Diamond, the human biological function of sex is an evolutionary process that has created a continuin g interest yet highly susceptible to predators (Diamond, 1998: 11). The National Institute of Health has also explained that in the understanding and acceptance of normal sexuality, sex should be understood as a vital part of life closer probably to the human need for pleasure and gratification (Calderone in NIH). Sex encompasses normal interactions among individuals where a sublime need for physical, emotional and sexual intimacy soon develops sometimes beyond the consideration of accepted norms in the society.This was likewise explained in the renowned works of Masters and Johnson, where the anatomical and physiological human responses to sex are directly dependent to a stimulus (Hock, 2006). Out of the pioneering efforts of authors Masters and Johnson, we begin to develop an understanding of how individuals may develop a wide variety of choices in their sexual encounters. The male specie as the known progenitor of sex in several social analyses may offer money, status and commitm ent in exchange for sex (Baumeister, 2001: 7).In this transaction, our common ideas have supported a conclusion that the woman is exploited by a man in the process which can be taken to indicate that men and women play different response to sex in the order of strength of sexual desire. Yet based on the theories and explanation of natural human response to sex, the woman actually gives up nothing in return for her sexual favor because not only the male enjoys sex but the woman also gets sexual pleasures and the satisfaction of her own desires (Hock, 2006).In a sense with limited resource, we are however led to the belief that the woman’s capacity to command a higher price for sex becomes less with the increasing number of sexual partners by explaining the theory of rewards that, â€Å"where something is given out freely in the long run looses value† (Baumeister, 2001: 276). In the concept of homosexuality, we are led to believe on the perverse implications of homosexua l behavior as a confusing role in the society. The complicated biological nature of sexuality however supports that humans express their sexuality in a variety of ways (Giddens, 2006:437).Theories explaining sexual responses also believed that homosexuality is not a choice that can allow one person to renounce homosexuality at the risk of giving up loving and being loved by another (Giddens, 2006:436). Where ideas about sexuality are undergoing magnified changes, we are confronted with recent trends of homosexuality within a continuing struggle against discrimination. Yet for many authors, the division and shaping of gender roles happens gradually as humans gain mastery of its environment (Diamond, 2006:122). Censure and Sexual ConservatismIn countless years, the human sexual response has faced criticism as contingent biological facts faced ethical censure against American archaic obscenity laws. For many centuries, in the ethics of sexual conservatism, sex is permitted between a ma rried couple (male and female) which only later permitted consensual sex among alternative marriage between same-sex partners (Apostolidis and Williams, 2004:149). Monogamous heterosexual marriage frowned upon premarital and extramarital while imposing the values of sexual exclusivity as a concept of good.Justifying sexual ethics soon became a sexual code conduct that undermines human frailty and weakness as part of man’s natural biological and psychological make-up (Baumeister, 2001: 281). Sexual Conservatism became a mode among older generations as forms of eroticism and homoerotic sex is shunned upon and evidently discouraged in order to protect the privacy of the individual in sustaining social order (Davis, 1996:59). A New Understanding on Human Sexuality In the last forty years or so, we have moved from an idealistic view of human nature by relaxing appealing views on sexual freedom and understanding.The 60’s created for us a period of experimentation on freedom of human sexual response topped with socialistic problems of single motherhood that began to disprove sexual censorships of the past centuries and decades (Fitch, 2004: 92). In an attempt to create order in a society, the punitive forces against sexual behaviors became relaxed and tolerant. Sexual ethics to a degree became understood as something which is variable, depending on the changes in human nature and changes in the human society (Diamond, 2006: 95).Open discussions on sexuality soon became a positive issue in an integral point of discussion on the promotion of responsible sexual behaviors. Expanded research on the topic opened dialogues and strategies to promote an awareness f sexual behavior. Homosexuality was removed from a list of mental disorders thereby paving the way for an enhanced understanding of health in the context of homosexuality (WHO, 2007). Politicians: Common Targets Sex has continued to permeate as a permanent fixture in the United States political arena.I f we consider the well-publicized scandals at the early days of the republic, we can substantially agree that media freedom contributed well to our knowledge. This is a price politicians have to pay for living within the limelight of press freedom (Apostolidis and Williams, 2004: 7). From Jefferson’s sexual affairs, Kennedy’s sexual indulgences and Clinton’s sexual adventures, public officials have notoriously strayed beyond the bounds of sexual propriety (Apostolidis and Williams, 2004: 7).These scandals are discussed to investigate an abuse of power and influence to some extent but more commonly, America’s desire to talk about it spins the essential reason for its being. Politicians are easy targets in a discourse that stages the regulatory practice of powerful men. Betsy Wright, (a Clinton campaign chair) once said that enormous amounts of money was on the streets as tabloid newspapers and televisions were looking for a Clinton mistress ready to tell a ll whom they could pay off (Shields, Whayne and Kelley, 2004: 30).Although the law often exercises a general presumption of innocence especially on gossips involving sex and politics, other political rivals demand for an eruption to be told. Their lives are placed in public scrutiny while media created a salacious story while the public decide. To protect their position, politicians in turn exercise control by bringing in the big guns for a major cover-up that could exonerate them from the accusation. Such collusion within the government and media in an attempt to break free from a sex scandal may or may not change public sentiment.The socially injured politician could be likely subjected to blackmail as the public’s interest in their personal details catches attention. Analysis Within a political rubric, a sex scandal issue questions the morality of an individual thereby accusing him of misconduct and wrongdoing. Investigating the nature of a sex act, much fuss has been dele gated over a sexual scandal despite the fact that the human sexuality has explained how the sexual aspect of human nature does not conform to solitude and celibate life. Humans have a clear need for sex that ultimately goes far beyond reproduction (Diamond, 1998: 67).This mindless act is understood as a vital part of life as scientific studies proved naturally how human responses are dependent on stimulus and how one works for self-gratification in Freudian principles. In a male-female relationship, the woman is seen as the giver of sex while man, as the taker. In a much diverse and modern understanding of sexuality, theories explaining sexual responses understand and accept that homosexuality is not a choice but simply an alternative means to find love and intimacy (Giddens, 2006:436).The above ideas magnify the societal changes that have provided a deeper understanding of the human sexual response in a world where sexual roles change depending upon human mastery. Criticisms that s ought to break free from an understanding of human sexual response support an American archaic obscenity law that condones sex between married couples alone. A code of conduct is invisibly used to castigate those sexual encounters that go beyond the accepted â€Å"married couple† standard including homoeroticism and auto eroticism perhaps.It is quite clear that America despite claiming egalitarianism still borders on Victorian conservatism that has often been an issue of â€Å"double standard†. The rich technology and passage into modernity has paved way for a modern view on the subject yet where sexual lives of political leaders are discussed. Such ironies are encountered when America’s social make-up demands salacious discussion on erotic escapades of public personalities and political figures. Such indecent behaviors are held out in the open like a frosting on a highly palatable cake while the public greedily eyes it.The sexual aspect of human nature is terri bly disregarded in an effort to point fingers to the sexual perpetrator. In campaign attacks, sexual stories are blown up to portray an animalistic behavior inherent in rival political figures in order to tarnish his character and respectability. The fuss over sex scandals only serve to portray how America has a limited understanding on human sexuality and despite the presence of numerous books, journals and online resources that strive to explain it.Conclusion Our problem strives to answer whether we are in a ripe age of modernity to understand sex scandals in the face of political maneuvers and machinations while relying on the scientific principles of human nature’s response to sexual behavior regardless of gender and identity. America, I believe is steadily approaching and understanding of political maneuvers and machinations as we are suddenly faced with numerous allegations of illicit sexual activities.The past few decades have allowed us to display a relaxed attitude t owards sex as schools and universities strive to impart a better understanding of the subject. Where prominent political figures are concerned however, the American public is deeply dependent on the media and is often quick to point a finger to a perpetrator of prominence. Politicians have received public ridicule over gossips despite the fact that American law exercises a general presumption of innocence especially on gossips involving sex and politics.The American sentiment against sexual wrongdoings still border on Victorian ideas and there is an apparent need for social reform within this context. The human nature and understanding of the wrong doer is stripped indiscriminately applied over in politics in the face of an American public quick to cast a finger without further ado. Recommendations We do not strive to suggest the political and moral responsibility of individuals in public office but rather dwell on an understanding of sexual behavior of men.We strive to impart the k nowledge that America needs to understand the basics of human sexuality before it can gain foothold on a publicized discussion of political sexual scandals. Not only do we uphold media responsibility but strive to insist on legitimacy and credibility of media coverage in sex scandal cases among accused public officials. It has been commonplace for sex scandal issues to be used against a candidate during campaigns. Such attacks and mudslinging has been associated with an election strategy launched against a potential rival and in the end portray American ignorance.Nor do we support that evidence against sexual scandals be stonewalled, concealed and obstructed. Our main aim is merely to procure an understanding of human sexuality as a human nature and an acceptance of natural responses to consensual sexual behavior regardless of gender and identity. There is also a need for America to exercise a deeper understanding of human sexuality. I believe that in fact there is a boiling need fo r reform on generalized views that should be the basis for a future study. Reference Apostolidis, Paul and Williams, Juliet.2004. Public Affairs: Politics in the Age of Sex Scandals. Duke University. Baumeister, Roy F. (2001). Social Psychology and Human Sexuality: Essential Readings. Psychology Press. Davis, Peter. (1996). Intimate Details and Vital Statistic: AIDS, Sexuality and the Social Order in New Zealand. Auckland University. Diamond, Jared. (1998). Why Sex is Fun? : The Evolution of Human Sexuality. New York: Basic Books. Fitch, Brad. (2004). Media Relations Handbook for Agencies, Associations, Nonprofits, and Congress. The Capitol. Giddens, Anthony.(2006). Sociology. Polity. Hock, Roger R. (2006). Human Sexuality. US: Prentice Hall. Shields, Todd, Whayne, Jeannie, Kelley, Donald R. (2004). The Clinton Riddle: Perspectives on the Forty-second President. University of Arkansas. United States. National Institute on Health. Calderone, Mary Steichen. (2003). Human Sexuality. [h andouts] United Nations. World Health Organization. (2007). Human Rights Mechanisms: putting women’s health on the agenda, Lesbian and Bisexual Women’s Health: Common Concerns, Local Issues. [handouts].